Collapse Of The Concert Of Europe

Collapse Of The Concert Of Europe To What Extent Can The Collapse Of The Concert Of Europe Be Attributed To The Crimean War (1853-1856)? The collapse of the Concert of Europe can be attributed to the Crimean War to a limited extent as there were many other factors which acted to undermine the Concert, causing instability and disputes amongst the nations involved. Although the Crimean War can be indentified to have been a major instance in which participating countries disregarded their policies of peace in pursuit of national interest, this was not as significant to the collapse as earlier factors which essentially rendered the Concert obsolete. The rise of European nationalism and the conflicting ideology and differing aims of the countries involved created the unstable conditions for both the deterioration of the concert and the outbreak of the Crimean War. Therefore the Crimean War can be viewed as a final trigger, but not a sole instigation of collapse. The 18th Century nationalistic movement which was beginning to assert a strong hold among many European countries, acted to undermine the concert by threatening stability throughout Europe. In particular, the revolutionary upheavals of 1848 seriously weakened the Concert by demanding that frontiers established in the Congress of Vienna to be reviewed. In the Hungarian revolution of 1849, riots on the 15th of March by Magyar nationalists in Pest-Buda, now Budapest, the capital of Hungary, demanding Hungarys political independence from Austria resulted in the resignation of the Austrian Prince Metternich, a key personality in the negotiations in the Congress of Vienna. In a letter to Tsar Nicolas I of Russia in March 1848, a primary source informing of his resignation, Metternich describes the social crises as a ‘torrent no longer within the power of man†. Revolutionary upheavals were also apparent in France, Italy, Germany, Switzerland and Poland. The balance of power main tained in Europe was shifting, and as expressed by Metternich, the Concert of Europe had little influence over it. This largely undermined the Concerts objectives, as stated in Article VI of the 1815 Quadruple Alliance between Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia which formed the basis of the Concert, it was the responsibility of the ‘High Contracting Powers to renew at fixed intervals meetings consecrated to great common objects and the examination of such measures as at each one of these epochs shall be judged most salutary for the peace and prosperity of the nations and for the maintenance of the peace of Europe. As peace was not being maintained, the concert was, even at this point, somewhat defunct. Furthermore, this movement acted as an important impetus for the political unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. Owing to the development of 18th Century nationalism, Europe was geographically altered as countries gained their independence. Consequently, European d iplomacy was also altered causing a weakening of the concert, especially as conflict arose between the countries involved regarding intervention in revolution.iHu A fundamental division amongst members of the Concert of Europe, caused by conflicting ideological perspectives regarding intervention against revolutionary movements, acted to undermine the relationship between the countries. A foremost concern for the preservation of peace was the manner of dealing with revolutions and constitutional movements as many statesmen feared the idealogy of the French Revolution was still a powerful influence and as settlements in the Congress of Vienna had failed to satisfy nationalistic and constitutionalistic ambitions. Austria and Russia maintained it was the responsibility and right of the great powers to intervene and impose their collective will on states threatened by internal rebellion, with the Austrian diplomat Metternich stressing that revolution was a ‘terrible social catastrophe and believed that ‘only order produces equilibrium. However, Britain did not wish to intervene in internal disputes and instead pursed a less reactionary policy. Britains foreign secretaries, Castlereagh and later, Canning, acted to distance Britain from the policies of the continental powers with Canning clearly stating that ‘England is under no obligation to interfere, or assist in interfering, in the internal affairs of independent states. Thus, Britain disputed intervention within the Congress of Troppau in 1820, a response to revolts in Spain, Portugal, Piedmont and Naples, and at the Congress of Laibach in 1821 where Austria and Russia had prepared to mobilise soldiers against Italian revolts. The tension which resulted from these disputes lead to Britains increased isolation from Austria, Prussia and Russia while France maintained relations with both sides of the divide. Even though in 1825, a final Congress was held at St Petersburg in an attempt to resolve these disputes, only Austria, Prussia and Russia actively particpated revealing the large extent to which the Concert had been weakened. Despite the assertion that countries within the concert were acting for the greater interest of all of Europe, due to world economies becoming geo-political, with a focus on imperialism, colonialism and economic rivalry, the individual interests of countries revealed cracks in the system. Britains particular opposition towards intervention in Latin American revolutions was based on the grounds that Britain would be forgoing trade profit from the Spanish if rebellions ended there, and hence, refused to cooperate on the grounds of nationalistic interest which existed despite the concert. Geo-political competition and jealousy between European nations became particularly apparent in their decision to prohibit the entry of all foreign warships into the straits between Bosporus and Dardanelles. As a reward for Russian military assistance against Egypt, Russia was rewarded with advantageous access to these straits by the Ottoman Empire in the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi in 1833, which closed the Dardanelles off to â€Å"any foreign vessels of war† other than Russian. This allowed Russian commercial vessels free access into the Mediterranean, a significant benefit for Russian export trade particularly considering the growing importance of ports such as Odessa in the Ukraine. The Concert was indignant of Russias access to the straits and so an attempt to inhibit Russian expansionism, the straits convention was held in 1841 in which it was declared that no country should be in an advantageous position regarding the use of the straits. Furthermore, European nations were competing for raw materials, markets and land in order to fuel growing populations. Russia was still eager to increase its influence in the Balkans, and to gain control of the straits between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea then under Turkeys control. Britain and France viewed Russian control of the straits as a threat to their own trade interests, and Austria was uneasy about Russias growing influence in the Balkans. These tensions regarding the control of the Balkans in turn compounded the tension which already existed in the practically obsolete concert, and ultimately lead to the outbreak of the Crimean war, in which the remnants of the Concert expired. The outbreak of the Crimean War in 1853 signified the downfall of the Concert of Europe as the great powers engaged in war with one another over matters of national interest. In making an expansionary thrust at the Ottoman Empire, Russia disregarded any pretence of backing an altruistic balance of power. The causes of the Crimean War conflicted with the doctrine of the concert as an aspect of the preservation of the balance of power in Europe had been directed at preventing a single nation from gaining control of the Ottoman Empire, which was intended by Metternich to be a solution to the Eastern Question. As Russia sought to take exploit the decaying Ottoman Empire, in effect, it undermined the remnants of the Concert and the balance of power, leading to France and Britain, along with some assistance from Sardinia engaging in war to ironically, maintain peace in Europe. Effectively, this simply acted to sacrifice the Concert system with the war having the highest casualty rate of an y European conflict between the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and 1914, the Outbreak of World War One, as more than 450 000 Russians, 95 000 French and 22 000 English lost their lives during the conflict. Renowned historian A.J.P. Taylor states that regarding European international relations, the Crimean War destroyed the charade of Russian military dominance in Europe, which lead to Russias diminished influence in European affairs subsequent to 1856. Through sheer number, the Russian army had been the largest force and yet it was still defeated by the comparably smaller French and British armies. The internal effects of the war on countries within the Concert of Europe are also highly significant when considering the destruction of the balance of power. Having been made aware of Russias social and industrial backwardness through military weakness within the war, the Russian Tsar Alexander II became convinced of the need for Russian reform. Napoleon III of France sought to adopt new fo reign policies which eventually lead to conflict in the 1860s with Austria and Prussia. Austria had been isolated as its ties with Russia were severed due to Russias expectation as a result of its assistance in suppressing the 1849 Magyar revolts in Hungary, Austria would remain neutral in the war. The Treaty of Paris reached in 1856, permanently altered the balance of power and highlighted the strain which had been placed on it through the Crimean War. At the conclusion of the war, severe penalties were placed on Russia by the other countries, restricting its influence. Russia was made to surrender Bessarabia, situated at the mouth of the Danube, had to forgo claims as protector of Orthodox Christians, and lost influence over the Romanian principalities which, along with Serbia, were granted greater independence. Furthermore, the Black Sea was declared neutral, closing it off to all warships which effectively left Russia with an undefended southern border. This left Russia with little incentive to uphold the goals of the Concert as it was now at considerable disadvantage to the other European powers. Upon the conclusion of treaty negotiations the Concert was obsolete, with its goals abandoned and communication at a stand-still. Through the treaty of Paris it became apparent th at the Crimean war had disrupted nineteenth-century diplomacy, thereby destroying the decayed Concert of Europe. Although the Crimean War can be identified as the first major instance in which countries within the Concert of Europe clearly disregarded the policy of peace and turned against one another, it can only be held responsible for the concerts demise to a limited extent. The rise of Nationalism in Europe and the instability caused by the widespread outbreak of revolution caused a strong divide amongst countries. Britains refusal to assist in intervention particularly acted to undermine the authority and cohesion essentially making the Concert practically obsolete prior to the outbreak of the Crimean War. Therefore the war can be seen to have been the conclusion of the concert, but was by no means the sole cause of collapse. Bibliography Fisher, H.A.L, A History of Europe Volume II, Eyre Spottiswoode 1935 Langhorne, Richard, The Collapse of the Concert of Europe: International Politics, 1890-1914, Macmillan, 1981 Lee, Stephen J., Aspects of European History 1789-1980, Routledge, 1982 Medlicott, William N, Bismarck, Gladstone, and the Concert of Europe, Athlone Press, University of London, 1956 Robinson, James Harvey, Readings in European History, Vol. II, Boston: Gin and Co, 1906 Schroeder, Paul W., Austria, Great Britain, and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert, Cornell University Press, Ithaca NY, 1972 Sweetman, John, The Crimean War, Osprey Publishing Limited, London, United Kingdom, 2001 Taylor, A. J. P. The Origins of the Second World War, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1961 Robinson, James Harvey, Readings in European History p.464 Schroeder, Paul W., Austria, Great Britain, and the Crimean War, p.211 Lee, Stephen J., Aspects of European History, p.26 Lee, Stephen J., Aspects of European History, p.27 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/276910/Treaty-of-Hunkar-Iskelesi Langhorne, Richard, The Collapse of the Concert of Europe: International Politics, 1890-1914 p.38 Sweetman, John, The Crimean War p.42 A.J.P. Taylor, The origins of the second world war, Ch. 3 p.71

Earthquake Simulation for Buildings

Earthquake Simulation for Buildings Abstract Earthquake is an independent natural phenomenon of vibration of the ground which can become dangerous mainly when it is considered in relation with structures. Earthquakes can be very weak, without even realizing them but (they) can also be strong enough to result serious damages to buildings which can lead to injures or even loss of human lives. In order to avoid any structural damage the legislation sets conditions on the building design. For that purpose, Eurocode 8 is established in European countries and sets up all the appropriate criteria and measures for the design of buildings for earthquake resistance (Eurocode 8 is established in Europe and suggests 4 different methods of analysis.) In this project the response of eight buildings is examined (investigated) under seismic excitation. Firstly, is examined the case of four buildings (1 storey, 2 storey, 3 storey and 4 storey) where all the storeys are facsimile (replica). Afterwards, is examined the case of four buildings (aga in 1-4 storeys) where while the storeys of each building are increased, the mass, the stiffness and the height of each floor are decreased. Both the lateral method of analysis and the modal response spectrum analysis are used as recommended by EC8 to calculate the inter-storey drifts, the total shear forces and the overturning moments at the base of each building. The results are plotted and compared so that useful outcomes can be obtained. 1. Introduction One of the most frightening and destructive phenomena of nature is a severe earthquake and its terrible aftereffects especially when they are associated with structures. An earthquake is a sudden movement of the Earth, caused by the abrupt release of strain that has accumulated over a long time. Earthquake intensity and magnitude are the most common used parameters in order to understand and compare different earthquake events.( Ά° are the most common parameters used to appreciate and compare.) In recent years have been giving increasing attention to the design of buildings for earthquake resistance. Specific (particular) legislation is (have been) established to make structures able to resist at any seismic excitation. In Europe, Eurocode 8 explains how to make buildings able to resist to earthquakes, and recommends the use of linear and non-linear methods for the seismic design of the buildings Simple structures can be modelled either as equivalent single degree of freedom systems (SDOF) or as a combination of SDOF systems. In this project 8 different buildings with a variation either on the number of storeys or on their characteristics are simulated as a combination of SDOF systems for which the mode shapes and their corresponding eigenfrequencies and periods are calculated. Afterwards the fundamental frequency is obtained for each case and the elastic design is used in order to obtain the base shear forces and the overturning moments. (INELASTIC DESIGN AND LATERAL FORCE METHOD) 2. Literature review 2.1 Introduction to earthquake engineering Definition and earthquake derivation or generation or creation or production or formation or genesis The lithosphere is the solid part of Earth which includes or consists of the crust and the uppermost mantle. The sudden movement of the earths lithosphere is called earthquake (technical name seism). Fractures in Earths crust where sections of rock have slipped past each other are called Faults. Most earthquakes occur along Faults. Generally, earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of built-up stress within rocks along geologic faults or by the movement of magma in volcanic areas. The theory of plate tectonics provides geology with a comprehensive theory that explains how the Earth works. The theory states that Earths outermost layer, the lithosphere, is broken into 7 large, rigid pieces called plates: the African, North American, South American, Australian- Indian, Eurasian, Antarctic, and Pacific plates. Several subcontinental plates also exist, including the Caribbean, Arabian, Nazca, Philippines and Cocos plates. Boundaries of tectonic plates are found at the edge of the lithospheric plates and can be of various forms, depending on the nature of relative movements. By their distinct motions, three main types can be characterized. The three types are: subduction zones (or trenches), spreading ridges (or spreading rifts) and transform faults.. convergent, divergent and conservative. At subduction zone boundaries, plates move towards each other and the one plate subducts underneath the other (ÃŽÂ ® ÃŽ ¼Ãâ‚¬ÃŽ ¿Ã Ãƒ Ã… ½ ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ± πω: one plate is overriding another, thereby forcing the other into the mantle beneath it.) The opposite form of movement takes place at spreading ridge boundaries. At these boundaries, two plates move away from one another. As the two move apart, molten rock is allowed to rise from the mantle to the surface and cool down to form part of the plates. This, in turn, causes the growth of oceanic crust on either side of the vents. As the plates continue to move, and more crust is formed, the ocean basin expands and a ridge system is created. Divergent boundaries are responsible in part for driving the motion of the plates. At transform fault boundaries, plate material is neither created nor destroyed at these boundaries, but rather plates slide past each other. Transform faults are mainly associated with spreading ridges, as they are usually formed by surface movement due to perpendicular spreading ridges on either side. Earthquake Location When an earthquake occurs, one of the first questions is where was it?. An earthquakes location may tell us what fault it was on and where the possible damage most likely occurred. The hypocentre of an earthquake is its location in three dimensions: latitude, longitude, and depth. The hypocentre (literally meaning: below the center from the Greek υπà Ã…’Î ºÃŽ µÃŽ ½Ãâ€žÃ ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ½), or focus of the earthquake, refers to the point at which the rupture initiates and the first seismic wave is released. As an earthquake is triggered, the fault is associated with a large area of fault plane. The point directly above the focus, on the earths surface where the origin of an earthquake above ground. The epicentre is the place on the surface of the earth under which an earthquake rupture originates, often given in degrees of latitude (north-south) and longitude (east-west). The epicentre is vertically above the hypocentre. The distance between the two points is the focal depth. The location of any station or observation can be described relative to the origin of the earthquake in terms of the epicentral or hypocentral distances. Propagation of seismic waves Seismic waves are the energy generated by a sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an artificial explosion that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs. There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two most important types of seismic waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves travel deep within the earth and surface waves travel near the surface of the earth. Body waves: There are two types of body waves: P-waves (also pressure waves) and S-waves (also shear waves). P-waves travel through the Earth as longitudinal waves whose compressions and rarefactions resemble those of a sound wave. The name P-wave comes from the fact that this is the fastest kind of seismic wave and, consequently, it is the first or ‘Primary wave to be detected at a seismograph. Speed depends on the kind of rock and its depth; usually they travel at speeds between 1.5 and 8 kilometers per second in the Earths crust. P waves are also known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling they do. P waves shake the ground in the direction they are propagating, while S waves shake perpendicularly or transverse to the direction of propagation. The P-wave can move through solids, liquids or gases. Sometimes animals can hear the P-waves of an earthquake S-waves travel more slowly, usually at 60% to 70% of the speed of P waves. The name S-wave comes from the fact that these slower waves arrive Secondary after the P wave at any observation point. S-waves are transverse waves or shear waves, so that particles move in a direction perpendicular to that of wave propagation. Depending in whether this direction is along a vertical or horizontal plane, S-waves are subcategorized into SV and SH-waves, respectively. Because liquids and gases have no resistance to shear and cannot sustain a shear wave, S-waves travel only through solids materials. The Earths outer core is believed to be liquid because S-waves disappear at the mantle-core boundary, while P-waves do not. (3: http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/nat_hazards/nat_hazards.html) Surface waves: The surface waves expand, as the name indicates, near the earths surface. The amplitudes of surface waves approximately decrease exponentially with depth. Motion in surface waves is usually larger than in body waves therefore surface waves tend to cause more damage. They are the slowest and by far the most destructive of seismic waves, especially at distances far from the epicenter. Surface waves are divided into Rayleigh waves and Love waves. Rayleigh waves, also known as ground roll, are the result of an incident P and SV plane waves interacting at the free surface and traveling parallel to that surface. Rayleigh waves (or R-waves) took their name from (named for) John Strutt, Lord Rayleigh who first described them in 1885 (ÃŽÂ ® who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885) and they are an important kind of surface wave. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the R-wave, which can be much larger than the other waves. In Rayleigh waves the particles of soil move vertically in circular or elliptical paths, just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. As Rayleigh wave particle motion is only found in the vertical plane, this means that they most commonly found on the vertical component of seismograms. The Rayleigh equation is: Love waves (also named Q waves) are surface seismic waves that cause horizontal shifting of the earth during an earthquake. They move the ground from side to side in a horizontal plane but at right angles to the direction of propagation. Love waves took their name from A.E.H. Love, a British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. Love waves are the result from the interaction with SH-waves. They travel with a slower velocity than P- or S- waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves, their speed relate to the frequency of oscillation. Earthquake size: Earthquake measurement is not a simple problem and it is hampered by many factors. The size of an earthquake can be quantified in various ways. The intensity and the magnitude of an earthquake are terms that were developed in an attempt to evaluate the earthquake phenomenon and they are the most commonly used terms to express the severity of an earthquake. Earthquake intensity: Intensity is based on the observed effects of ground shaking on people, buildings, and natural features. It varies from place to place within the disturbed region depending on the location of the observer with respect to the earthquake epicenter. Earthquake magnitude: The magnitude is the most often cited measure of an earthquakes size. The most common method of describing the size of an earthquake is the Richter magnitude scale, ML. This scale is based on the observation that, if the logarithm of the maximum displacement amplitudes which were recorded by seismographs located at various distances from the epicenter are put on the same diagram and this is repeated for several earthquakes with the same epicentre, the resulting curves are parallel to each other. This means that if one of these earthquakes is taken as the basis, the coordinate difference between that earthquake and every other earthquake, measures the magnitude of the earthquake at the epicentre. Richter defined as zero magnitude earthquake one which is recorded with 1ÃŽ ¼m amplitude at a distance of 100 km. Therefore, the local magnitude ML of an earthquake is based on the maximum trace amplitude A and can be estimated from the relation: ML= log A log A (3) Where A is the amplitude of the zero magnitude earthquake (ML=0). The Richter magnitude scale can only be used when seismographs are within 600 km of the earthquake. For greater distances, other magnitude scales have been defined. The most current scale is the moment magnitude scale MW, which can be used for a wide range of magnitudes and distances. Two main categories of instruments are used for the quantitative evaluation (estimation, assessment) of the earthquake phenomenon: the seismographs which record the displacement of the ground as a function of time, and the accelerographs (or accelerometers) which record the acceleration of the ground as a function of time, producing accelerograms. X the accelerogram of the 1940 El Centro earthquake. For every earthquake accelerogram, elastic or linear acceleration response spectrum diagrams can be calculated. (obtained, estimated) The response spectrum of an earthquake is a diagram of the peak values of any of the response parameters (displacement, acceleration or velocity) as a function of the natural vibration period T of the SDOF system, subjected to the same seismic input. All these parameters can be plotted together in one diagram which is called the tripartite plot (also known as four coordinate paper). 2.2 Earthquake and Structures simulation 2.2.1 Equation of motion of SDOF system Introduction Vibration is the periodic motion or the oscillation of an elastic body or a medium, whose state of equilibrium has been disturbed. ÃŽâ€" ÃŽ ¼Ãâ‚¬ÃŽ ¿Ã Ãâ€° ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ± πω: whose position of equilibrium has been displaced. There are two types of vibrations, free vibration and forced vibration. Vibration can be classified as either free or forced. A structure is said to be in a state of free vibration when it is disturbed from its static equilibrium by given a small displacement or deformation and then released and allowed to vibrate without any external dynamic excitation. Number of Degrees of Freedom (DOF) is the number of the displacements that are needed to define the displaced position of the masses relative to their original position. Simple structures can be idealised as a system with a lumped mass m supported by a massless structure with stiffness k. It is assumed that the energy is dissipated through a viscous damper with damping coefficient c. Only one displacement variable is required in order to specify the position of the mass in this system, so it is called Singe Degree of Freedom (SDOF) system. Undamped Free Vibration of SDOF systems Furthermore, if there is no damping or resistance in the system, there will be no reduction to the amplitude of the oscillation and theoretically the system will vibrate forever. Such a system is called undamped and is represented in the below: By taking into consideration the inertia force fin and the elastic spring force fs the equation of the motion is given by: fin + fs = 0 → m+ ku = 0 Considering the initial conditions u(0) and (0), where u(0) is the displacement and (0) is the velocity at the time zero, the equation (4) has the general solution: u(t) = u(0) cosωnt + sinωnt where ωn is the natural frequency of the system and is given by, ωn = (6) The natural period and the natural frequency can be defined by the above equations: Tn = (7) fn = (8) Viscously damped Free Vibration of SDOF systems The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs and the damping force fD, the equation of the motion is given by: m+ c+ ku = 0 (9) Dividing by m the above equation gives: + 2ÃŽ ¾Ãâ€°n+ ω2u = 0 (10) where ÃŽ ¾ is the critical damping and is given by: ÃŽ ¾ = (11) and Cc is the critical damping ratio given by: Cc = 2mωn * If ÃŽ ¾ > 1 or c > Cc the system is overdamped. It returns to its equilibrium position without oscillating. * If ÃŽ ¾ = 1 or c = Cc the system is critically damped. It returns to its equilibrium position without oscillating, but at a slower rate. * If ÃŽ ¾ Taking into account that all the structures can be considered as underdamped systems, as typically their damping ratio ÃŽ ¾ is less than 0.10 the equation (9) for the initial conditions u (0) and (0) gives the solution below: U (t) = e†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦[u(0)cosωn+[†¦.+sinωDt] (13) where ωD is the natural frequency of damped vibration and is given by: ωD = ωn (14) Hence the natural period is: TD = (15) Undamped Forced Vibration of SDOF system The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs and the external dynamic load f(t), the equation of the motion is given by: m+ ku = f(t) (16) where f(t) = f0 sinωt is the maximum value of the force with frequency ω By imposing the initial conditions u(0) and (0) the equation (16) has a general solution: u(t) = u(0)cosωnt + sinωnt + sinωt (17) Damped Forced Vibration of SDOF system The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs, the damping force fD and the external dynamic load f(t), the equation of the motion is given by: m+ c+ ku = f(t) (18) where f(t) = f0 sinωt The particular solution of equation (18) is: up = Csinωt + Dcosωt (19) And the complementary solution of equation (18) is: (20) uc = e(AcosωDt + Bsinωnt) (20) 2.2.2 Equation of motion of MDOF system The equation of motion of a MDOF elastic system is expressed by: M+ C+ Ku = -MAI(t) (21) where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix, K is the stiffness matrix, u is the acceleration vector, u is the velocity vector and u is the displacement vector. Finally, AI is a vector with all the elements equal to unity and ug(t) is the ground acceleration. 2.2 Earthquake and Structures simulation 2.2.1 Equation of motion of SDOF system Introduction Vibration is the periodic motion or the oscillation of an elastic body or a medium, whose state of equilibrium has been disturbed. ÃŽâ€" ÃŽ ¼Ãâ‚¬ÃŽ ¿Ã Ãâ€° ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ± πω: whose position of equilibrium has been displaced. There are two types of vibrations, free vibration and forced vibration. Vibration can be classified as either free or forced. A structure is said to be in a state of free vibration when it is disturbed from its static equilibrium by given a small displacement or deformation and then released and allowed to vibrate without any external dynamic excitation. Number of Degrees of Freedom (DOF) is the number of the displacements that are needed to define the displaced position of the masses relative to their original position. Simple structures can be idealised as a system with a lumped mass m supported by a massless structure with stiffness k. It is assumed that the energy is dissipated through a viscous damper with damping coefficient c. Only one displacement variable is required in order to specify the position of the mass in this system, so it is called Singe Degree of Freedom (SDOF) system. Undamped Free Vibration of SDOF systems Furthermore, if there is no damping or resistance in the system, there will be no reduction to the amplitude of the oscillation and theoretically the system will vibrate forever. Such a system is called undamped and is represented in the below: By taking into consideration the inertia force fin and the elastic spring force fs the equation of the motion is given by: fin + fs = 0 → m+ ku = 0 Considering the initial conditions u(0) and (0), where u(0) is the displacement and (0) is the velocity at the time zero, the equation (4) has the general solution: u(t) = u(0) cosωnt + sinωnt where ωn is the natural frequency of the system and is given by, ωn = (6) The natural period and the natural frequency can be defined by the above equations: Tn = (7) fn = (8) Viscously damped Free Vibration of SDOF systems The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs and the damping force fD, the equation of the motion is given by: m+ c+ ku = 0 (9) Dividing by m the above equation gives: + 2ÃŽ ¾Ãâ€°n+ ω2u = 0 (10) where ÃŽ ¾ is the critical damping and is given by: ÃŽ ¾ = (11) and Cc is the critical damping ratio given by: Cc = 2mωn * If ÃŽ ¾ > 1 or c > Cc the system is overdamped. It returns to its equilibrium position without oscillating. * If ÃŽ ¾ = 1 or c = Cc the system is critically damped. It returns to its equilibrium position without oscillating, but at a slower rate. * If ÃŽ ¾ Taking into account that all the structures can be considered as underdamped systems, as typically their damping ratio ÃŽ ¾ is less than 0.10 the equation (9) for the initial conditions u (0) and (0) gives the solution below: U (t) = e†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦[u(0)cosωn+[†¦.+sinωDt] (13) where ωD is the natural frequency of damped vibration and is given by: ωD = ωn (14) Hence the natural period is: TD = (15) Undamped Forced Vibration of SDOF system The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs and the external dynamic load f(t), the equation of the motion is given by: m+ ku = f(t) (16) where f(t) = f0 sinωt is the maximum value of the force with frequency ω By imposing the initial conditions u(0) and (0) the equation (16) has a general solution: u(t) = u(0)cosωnt + sinωnt + sinωt (17) Damped Forced Vibration of SDOF system The equation of motion of such a system can be developed from its free body diagram below: Considering the inertia force fin, the elastic spring force fs, the damping force fD and the external dynamic load f(t), the equation of the motion is given by: m+ c+ ku = f(t) (18) where f(t) = f0 sinωt The particular solution of equation (18) is: up = Csinωt + Dcosωt (19) And the complementary solution of equation (18) is: uc = (AcosωDt + Bsinωnt) (20) 2.2.2 Equation of motion of MDOF system The equation of motion of a MDOF elastic system is expressed by: M+ C+ Ku = -MAI(t) (21) where M is the mass matrix, C is the damping matrix, K is the stiffness matrix, u is the acceleration vector, u is the velocity vector and u is the displacement vector. Finally, AI is a vector with all the elements equal to unity and g(t) is the ground acceleration. 3. Description of the Method 3.1 Simplified Multi-Storey Shear Building Model It is almost impossible to predict precisely which seismic action a structure will undergo during its life time. Each structure must be designed to resist at any seismic excitation without failing. For this reason each structure is designed to meet the requirements of the design spectrum analysis based in EC8. Also some assumptions are necessary in order to achieve the best and the simplest idealization for each multi store building. Initially it is assumed that the mass of each floor is lumped at the centre of the floor and the columns are massless. The floor beams are completely rigid and incompressible; hence the floor displacement is being transferred equally to all the columns. The columns are flexible in horizontal displacement and rigid in vertical displacement, while they are provided with a fully fixed support from the floors and the ground. The building is assumed to be symmetric about both x and y directions with symmetric column arrangement. The consequence of this is tha t the centre of the mass of each floor to coincide with the centre of the stiffness of each floor. The position of this centre remains stable up the entire height of the building. Finally, it is assumed that there are no torsional effects for each of the floors. If all the above assumptions are used the building structure is idealised as a model where the displacement at each floor is described by one degree of freedom. Thus, for a jth storey building, j degrees of freedom required to express the total displacement of the building. The roof of the building has always to be considered as a floor. The mass matrix M is a symmetric diagonal nxn matrix for a n-storey building and is given below. Each diagonal value in the matrix represents the total mass of one beam and its two corresponding columns which are assumed to be lumped at each level. M = Stiffness method is used to formulate the stiffness matrix. K is the lateral stiffness of each column and is given by the relationship: K = (22) where EI is the flexural stiffness of a column. The lateral stiffness of each column is clamped at the ends and is imposed in a unit sway. The stiffness of each floor is the sum of the lateral force of all columns in the floor. The stiffness matrix is for a n-storey building is: K = In order to calculate the natural modes of the vibration, the system is assumed that vibrates freely. Thus, g(t)=0, which for systems without damping (c=0) the equation (21) specializes to: M+ Ku = 0 (23) The displacement is assumed to be harmonic in time, this is: = -ω2Ueiωt (24) Hence equation (23) becomes: (K ω2M)U = 0 (25) The above equation has the trivial solution u=0. For non trivial solutions, u≠ 0 the determinant for the left hand size must be zero. That is: |K ω2 M| = 0 (26) This condition leads to a polynomial in terms of ω2 with n roots, where n is the size of matrices and vectors as cited above. These roots are called eigenvalues. By applying the equation (6) (7), the natural frequency and the natural period of vibration for each mode shape can be determined. Each eigenvalue has a relative eigenvector which represent the natural ith mode shape. After the estimation of the eigenvector in order to compare the mode shapes, scale factors are applied to natural modes to standarise their elements associated with various degrees of freedom (X). This process is called normalization. Hence, after the estimation of the eigenvectors each mode is normalised so that the biggest value is X: eigenvector notation. unity. The eigenvectors of a symmetric matrix corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal. This aspect is expressed by the following expression: UiTKUij = UiTMUij (27) The classical eigenvalue problem has the following form: (M-1K ÃŽ » I) u = 0 (28) where ÃŽ » =ω2 and I is the identity matrix. EC8 suggests that the response in two modes i and j can be assumed independent of each other when Tj ≠¤ 0.9 Ti where Ti and Tj are the periods of the modes i and j respectively (always Ti ≠¥ Tj). The calculated fundamental period can be checked by the equation that EC8 suggests: T = Ct*H3/4 where T is the fundamental period of the building, Ct is a coefficient and H is the total height of the building; this expression is valid buildings that their total height is not more than forty metres 3.2 Elastic Analysis The response method is used to estimate the maximum displacement (uj), pseudo- velocity (j) and acceleration (j) for each calculated natural frequency. It is assumed that the MDOF system oscillates in each of its modes independently and displacements, velocities and accelerations can be obtained for each mode separately considering modal responses as SDOF responses. Each maximum, displacement velocity and acceleration read from the design spectrum is multiplying by the participation factor ÃŽ ±i to re-evaluate the maximum values expressed ujmax, jmax, jmax respectively. The participation factor ÃŽ ±i is defined by the following equation: (28) where UijT is the transpose vector of each of the mode vectors, M is the mass matrix, AI is the unit vector and Uij is the mode shape vector. The actual maximum displacements of the jth mode are given by: u = ujmaxΆ¡Uj Afterwards, the root-mean-square (RMS) approximation is used in order to calculate the maximum displacement for each floor. In this approach, all the maximum values for each mode, are squared and summed and their square root is derived. If we let Dmax be the maximum displacement then: Dmax = (29) A very variable parameter to characterise the seismic behaviour of a building is the Inter-Storey Drift which can be obtained by the following equation: ÃŽ ´i = Di Di-1/hi (30) where Di, Di-1, are the horizontal displacements for two contiguous floors and hi is the corresponding height of the floor. The calculated values must be lower than 4% in order to agree with the Eurocode. Afterwards the horizontal inertia forces Fjs applied at each floor are obtained by applying the following equation: Fj = MΆ¡UjΆ¡jmax (31) where M is the mass matrix, Uj is the eigenvector for each mode and jmax is the maximum acceleration. As it is suggested from the EC8, the root-mean-approximation is used again in order to obtain the total lateral forces. EC8 suggests that the combined lateral force at each floor is given by the square root of the sum of the squares of each lateral force at each floor of all the modes. If we let Ftotal,i the maximum base shear force then: Ftotal,j = [1] (32) where Fij is the lateral force at floor i of the mode j. Once the total lateral forces and the shear forces have been obtained, the maximum overturning moment is calculated. 3.3 Inelastic Analysis The inelastic response spectra are generally obtained by the scaling of the elastic design spectra via the use of response modification factors. No effect of the energy absorption was assumed in the structure for the calculated values by using the elastic design spectrum. By introducing the ductility factor this parameter is taking into consideration. Newmark has described the ductility parameter ÃŽ ¼ as the ratio of maximum displacement to the displacement at yield. Apparently when yielding does not take place the concept of ductility is not relevant and ÃŽ ¼ is taken equal to unity. ÃŽ ¤he system is described by the damping ratio Ï‚, the natural frequency ωn, and the ductility factor ÃŽ ¼. In order to calculate the new set of values of acceleration, displacement and velocity the design response spectrum has to be constructed. Newmarks procedure leads to the construction of two modified spectra. 1. For maximum acceleration: In this case the elastic design spectrum is reduced by the appropriate coefficients. The acceleration region of the graph is multiplie

Leadership Theories and the Bible Essay -- Papers Leading

Theories of Leadership Leadership is the ability of a person to influence people toward the attainment of a particular goal. Leadership is a people activity, not like administrative paper shuffling or problem solving. It is a dynamic force and involves the use of power. Out of the forces of leadership come four powerful characteristics: supportive, directive, participative, and achievement-oriented leadership. Although these types of characteristics are not considered ingrained personality traits, they reflect types of behavior every leader is able to adopt depending on the situation. The supportive leadership role involves showing concern for subordinates' well being and personal needs. This type of leadership behavior is open, friendly, and approachable. The person who has this type of leadership trait would be able to created a team climate and treats subordinates as equals. They move on a higher plain of trust. By seeking and finding support form his subordinates, the supportive leader shows his trustworthiness and integrity. He can be at times open to change. Supportive leaders have a high degree of emotional intelligence which means having a deep understanding of one?s emotions, strengths, weaknesses, needs and drives. The supportive leader will be able to recognize these traits in his subordinates because he possesses them as well. In the biblical sense, Two are better than one because they have a good reward for their hard work. "For if one of them should fall, the other one can raise his partner up. But how will it be with just the one who falls when there is not another to raise him up," Eccesiastes 4:9-10. God wants us to show concern for each other and give support when needed. These two p... ...en in Israel like Moses, whom the lord knew face to face, who did all those miraculous signs and wonders the Lord sent him to do in Egypt ? to Pharaoh and to all his officials and to his whole land. For no one has ever shown the mighty powers or performed the awesome deeds that Moses did in the sight of all Israel.? This clearly shows that God does not want us to dwell on monetary rewards. He wants us to communicate and lead on a higher plan and not dwell on what?s in it for me. God should be our reward. Because if we live for God, we will surely be an outcast to others. All four types of leaderships have there own share of ups and downs. None of them are really clear-cut. There are drawbacks in any type of leadership. But if you put God first in everything that you do, you will have a greater chance for success, and possibly the respect you deserve.

Anointed King :: essays research papers

Within Shakespeare’s play Richard II there are many questionable and untrusting characters. Truth and duty are only illusions within the play. Lust for power and control override the order of England and its ordained king. It’s believed that it is by the will of God that Richard is king. No mortal man can come between what God has set before them as rule. The final decision is God’s and the only way that God’s choice can be changed is by God himself, and no one else. God takes the Garden of Eden from Adam, and like Adam, England is taken from Richard. It is questionable if Bolingbroke acts against God’s will or through God’s will. Richard is king, and though a sad choice, he has been ordained by God as king and ruler of England. It is not for his followers to decide if he is to be replaced by someone that they feel would be a better caretaker of the “garden';. In Richard II , by overtaking the crown and replacing R ichard with Bolingbroke, society is going against its own belief that Richard is ordained by God. From an Englishman’s point of view it could be argued that God is somewhat responsible for the state that England is in, because they believe Richard was chosen by God. Within Richard II , God is believed to be forsaken so that England can become a great kingdom again, and this is done in hope that Richard’s wrongs can be made right by Bolingbroke. Richard’s opposition - York, Bolingbroke, and Northumberland - believe that what they are doing is done to regenerate the badly tended “garden';. They want to replant it with Bolingbroke as king, and this they believe will restore England to order. By judging and replacing Richard they are going against what their society believes is God’s will. This is the worst mistake of all, because as the saying goes “two wrongs don’t make a right';. They are playing against a power fa r greater than anything they could imagine Richard being able to do. Their worries should not be of what Richard will do to them if they do not succeed, but what God will do to them at any given time. Northumberland tells of how the kingship will be restored and the garden revived. "If then we shall shake off our slavish yoke,/ Imp out our drooping country’s broken wing,/ Redeem from broking pawn the blemished crown,/ Wipe off the dust that hides our scepter’s gilt,/ And make high majesty look like itself," (Richard II II.

Advertising - Selling a Lot More than Just a Product Essay -- Adverts,

Advertisements for various products are seen everywhere — on billboards, in magazines, on television, and countless other places. What draws the consumer into the advertisement — the actual product, the display of the sensual woman as she drinks a glass of milk, or the muscular man sporting a Ralph Lauren blanket as a loincloth? These types of advertisements display unlikely depictions of men and women to society. Today, advertisers use the influence of gender and sex to sell various products to consumers, resulting in unrealistic expectations of men and women to society. According to Vernon Fryburger, author of the book The New Age of Advertising, â€Å"The most important job for advertising is to â€Å"make a sale† for a product or a service, and to do so it must clearly establish a rapport with its audience, which means that it must consciously stay within relatively narrow bounds of acceptability in terms of language, visualizations, and general background and frame of reference† (15). Advertisers use many different strategies to sell their products to consumers. They spend over 200 billion dollars per year attempting to get the attention of consumers and to influence their decisions. An average person views 250 advertisements every day and over two million advertisements by the time they are twenty-five years of age (Baran 278). When advertisers are working on campaigns, they think about what the consumer wants and needs to see in order to purchase the product. More often than not, attractive, seductive-looking individuals are chosen for ads (Percy and Rossiter 1-5). When advertisers are preparing ad campaigns, they will usually discuss women and men can be profitably pictured (Goffman 25). An example of how ad... ... World of Advertising. Chicago: Crain Books, 1975. Goffman, Erving. Gender Advertisements. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard U.P., 1979. Griffiths, Merris. â€Å"Craig, R. Stephen (1992): ‘The Effect of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Content Analysis.’† Internet, 2001. http://www.aber.ac.uk/education/Resdeg/merris09.html. Kahle, Lynn R., Larry Chiagouris, editors. Values, Lifestyles, and Psychographics. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997. Meyers, William. The Image-Makers: Power and Persuasion on Madison Avenue. New York: The New York Times Book, 1984. Moog, Carol, Ph. D. â€Å"Are They Selling Her Lips?†: Advertising and Identity. New York: William Morrow, 1990. Percy, Larry, John R. Rossiter. Advertising Strategy: A Communication Theory Approach. New York: Praeger, 1980.

End-of-life Essay

End-of-life care is a form of medical treatment which is usually provided for terminal illnesses, when the condition is no longer curable and every effort should be made at improving the quality of life rather than increasing the duration of life. Cancer is one condition which is incurable during the advanced stages. End-of-life usually does not involve provision of anticancer treatment but concern for lowering the physical symptoms (especially pain so that the patient is comfortable), addressing the psychosocial issues and the spiritual concerns, so as to improve the quality of life. Often an ethical dilemma exists at the situations under which end-of-life care should be started. The need to provide end-of-life care arises out the physician’s obligation to ensure that the patient can live and die with dignity, compassion, comfort and respect. Two of the cases which demonstrate the physician’s obligations to the patients were the Ann Quinlan case (1976) and the Cruzan V. Harmon case (1988) (Meisel, 2005 & Rekel, 2007). In the Quinlan case, Ms. Quinlan suffered irreversible damage to the brain cortex and was left in a permanent vegetative state. She required ventilator support, artificial nutrition and artificial hydration to maintain her medical and nursing care. She could be kept alive for any duration, but this was morally not required and not in the patient’s best interest. The physician’s refused to remove ventilator support and hence the family had to go to the New Jersey Court. The court in the landmark decision permitted to remove ventilator support as it was not in the patient’s best interest. The court had said that although the patient was in a permanent vegetative state and did not have to ability to make a decision about withdrawing ventilator support, it did not mean that she could not exercise her choice and give her decision. The decision-making could be made by a surrogate who would be doing so in the best interest of the patient. In the Roe vs. Wade case, the court gave the decision that the patient could control their medical treatment and had the right to make decisions. In the Cruzon case, after the ventilator was removed, the patient survived for about 10 years. The Missouri court in this case did not follow the advice of the parent’s on removing life-saving support. The court said that all measures should be done in best interest of the patient, and if there were not clear evidence of the patient’s wishes, then the legal guardian should be acting in the patient’s best interest. The court said that even if there was a need to prolong life through ventilator support, if there was no evidence that the patient’s best interest would be fulfilled. In the case Westchester County Medical Ctr (1988), the New York court said that there had to exist clear and convincing evidence whenever important decisions had to be taken by the surrogate (Meisel, 2005 & Rekel, 2007). Some of the common ethical issues regarding medical treatment have been ‘beneficence’ and ‘non-maleficence’. The physician should do treatment that benefits the patient and does not cause more harm. They should help reduce the suffering and help the patient to return to health. However, in the end-of-life issues, the patient would be dying due to the terminal cancer condition, and using life-sustaining treatment would not have any potential benefits, as it would prolong life, but not improve the quality. In this case medical treatment is doing lot harm than benefits, and hence using it would be inappropriate. However, a clear judgment has to be made in the clinical-decision making and one of the most important issues is whether the patient has made the intention of withdrawing all the life-saving treatment and instead goes into palliative care (in which symptomatic treatment would be provided so as to improve the quality of life during the last few days). Having the patient make this decision is based on another ethical principle known as ‘autonomy’. The patient has the right to choose or disregard whichever treatment he/she wants as the have the right to control any act that is done with their body (Walker, 1999 & Meisel, 2005). Implications of risk management – †¢ Mainly with the use of opioids to manage pain (especially from its prolonged use) †¢ Clinical practice guidelines and protocols should be followed to ensure the greatest amount of benefits for the patient in the form of improved quality of life and lowered discomfort levels (Hoffman, 1998). The right to autonomy of the patient should not be disregarded under any circumstance. The patient has the right to choose palliative treatment or reject it based on their own choices. The patient may also want to undergo curative treatment for cancer even though the survival rate may be low. The patient should be informed of the benefits, risks, options, outcome and costs of all forms of treatment available. The physician should answer all the queries the patient has of all the available forms of treatment. No treatment should be done against the will and intention of the patient. If the patient is not able to make a reasonable decision as they may not be legally competent, then the surrogate (including the family member or a legal guardian) of the patient should make a decision on the patient’s behave, keeping in mind the clear interests of the patient (Walker, 1999, Meisel, 2005 & Rekel, 2007). There may be a lot of competing loyalties between the patient and the organization:- †¢ The organization may try to keep the interest of the patient in mind and may do all that it can to reduce sufferings, improve the quality of life and ensure a peaceful end †¢ The organization may demonstrate a greater opinion towards anticancer treatment as it would involve higher costs (even though it is not beneficial to the patient anywhere) †¢ Even though the patient can benefit to a reasonable extent from anticancer treatment, the organization may force end-of-life care on the patient, as the family members have provided consent. In this case the family members would be having conflicting interests with the patient and may want a faster end to the patient. To prevent any conflicting interest of other parties, it is important that any decision made regarding use of anticancer treatment of initiation of end-of-life care should be clearly justified and documented through evidence-based findings. An ethical approach should be initiated to ensure that all issues are sorted out keeping the patient’s interest in mind:- †¢ The physician should ensure maintaining autonomy of the patient at all stages †¢ If the patient is not competent enough to make a decision by himself, decision-making should be done by the surrogate keeping in mind the patient’s interest and choices †¢ It is the obligation of the physician to ensure that the patient lives †¢ The patient’s competence needs to be determined so that a reasonable decision can be ensured †¢ The patient has to be informed of all the alternative choices available at all the stages †¢ In case of diagnosis of a terminal illness, confirmation should be taken from two physician’s (second opinion) †¢ In case of terminal illness, and the patient choice palliative care, efforts should be made at all stages to improve the quality of life (through symptomatic treatment of physical problems, addressing the psychosocial and spiritual issues), rather than on prolonging life The other issues which need to be addressed include:- 1. Active Euthanasia – This is legal in only a few states of the world including Netherlands and Belgium. The patient should make a reasonable decision, and should be a native from that state in which euthanasia is legalized. The physician himself would take the active step of ending the patient’s life. The patient should be diagnosed with a terminal illness 2. Physician-Assisted Suicide – This has been legalized in the US state of Oregon, PAS has been legalized. The patient would perform the active step of ending life and the physician would merely assist the patient. The patient should be diagnosed with a terminal illness (in which death would be certain within 6 months). The patient should be legally competent to make a reasonable decision (Rekel, 2007). References: Hoffmann, D. E. (1998). â€Å"Pain Management and Palliative Care in the Era of Managed Care: Issues for Health Insurers†, Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 26(4), 267-289. http://www. aslme. org/research/mayday/26. 4/26. 4c. php Meisel, A. (2005). Ethics, End-of-Life Care, and the Law: Overview, Retrieved on August 16, 2008, from Hospice Foundation Website: http://www. hospicefoundation. org/teleconference/books/lwg2005/meisel_jennings. pdf National Cancer Institute (2002). End-of-Life Care: Questions and Answers, Retrieved on August 16, 2008, from NCI Website: http://www. cancer. gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Support/end-of-life-care Rekel, R. (2007). Rakel: Textbook of Family Medicine, 7th ed, Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier. Walker, R. M. (1999). Ethical Issues in End-of-Life Care, Cancer Control, 6(2):162-167. http://www. medscape. com/viewarticle/417700_1

How Powerful Do You Find Atticus Finch’s Closing Speech?

In a final bid to secure freedom for Tom Robinson, Atticus Finch uses several linguistic tools in his last speech to the jury to attempt to sway their opinions of Tom’s guilt in the crime. Emotive language is used in Atticus’s speech to create a powerful effect in his audience. He first uses to make people feel sorry for Mayella Ewell: ‘She is the victim of cruel poverty and ignorance’. Use of the word ‘victim’ is effective in building pity for Mayella, as it implies that she is not at fault for her misfortunes and is instead the poor unfortunate soul suffering due to circumstances that she could not control. This pity is then used as a way for the jurors to feel a connection with Tom, who, as Atticus points out, is ‘a quiet, respectable, humble Negro who had the unmitigated temerity to ‘feel sorry’ for a white woman’. By reminding the jurors that Tom is not so different from them, in that they all pity Mayella, Atticus relates them with Tom. Pity for Tom is also evoked, as Atticus reminds the jurors that Tom was merely ‘a quiet, respectable, humble Negro’. Words such as ‘humble’ builds up an image of an unassuming man and plants a little seed of doubt about Tom’s guilt in the minds of the jurors. Atticus also tries to lead the jury to feel pity for Tom by putting a little emphasis on Tom’s plight: ‘[Tom] has had to put his word against two white people’s. In that time of racial prejudice, for Tom to contradict any white person was a desperate path, as black people are usually assumed to be in the wrong automatically, and therefore, through reminding the jurors of Tom’s testimony, Atticus is attempting to bring forth pity for Tom. The tone of the statement also suggests that such a drastic action was not by choice; with the phrase ‘h as had to’, Atticus is insinuating that it was Tom’s last resort, that Tom was forced by the circumstances to challenge the Ewells’s testimonies. The evidence is presented to the jury in a clear manner: ‘There is circumstantial evidence to indicate that Mayella Ewell was beaten savagely by someone who led almost exclusively with his left†¦ and Tom Robinson now sits before you, having taken the oath with the only good hand he possesses – his right hand. ’ Here, Atticus is very definite on the evidence and leaves no room for ambiguity; he emphasises the fact that Tom had only one functional hand, his right. The effect of this observation is powerful, because it forces the jury to take a moment and reconsider; Atticus’s statement clearly outlines that Mayella was beaten by a left-hander, a feat impossible for the crippled Tom, therefore reinforcing an earlier assertion by Atticus: ‘The defendant is not guilty, but someone in this court-room is. ’ The tone in this allegation adds a little dramatic tension to the atmosphere of the courtroom and helps Atticus gain the interest and attention of the audience as they wait to hear to whom Atticus has assigned the guilt. The tone of Atticus’s speech also brings in another persuasive element. An example of this is seen when Atticus disdains the assumption that all black people are liars and immoral beings not to be trusted around white women: ‘Which, gentlemen, we know is in itself a lie as black as Tom Robinson’s skin, a lie I do not have to point out to you. ’ The words of this statement suggest a rather forceful tone as Atticus asserts that to stereotype is wrong. Through the use of inclusive phrases, such as ‘we know’, Atticus is also able to evoke a slight feeling of shame in the jurors as he indirectly reprimands their prejudice by implying that they ought to have known that their generalisation of black people was simply not true. Atticus tries further to break this long-ingrained prejudice by telling his audience that they are all the same: ‘You know the truth and the truth is this: some Negroes lie, some Negroes are immoral, some Negro men are not to be trusted around women – black and white. But this is a truth that applies to the human race and to no particular race of men. There is not a person in this court-room who has never told a lie, who has never done an immoral thing, and there is no man living who has never looked upon a woman with desire. ’ With this proclamation, Atticus is able to show that Tom is no different in character to anyone else and that the jury should not allow racist perceptions to influence their verdict and cause them to judge Tom basing their opinions on how likely they think those of his race are to commit this terrible offense. Atticus later augments his plea by noting that ideally, justice is blind: ‘But there is one way in this country in which all men are created equal†¦ The institution, gentlemen, is a court†¦ in our courts, all men are created equal. ’ Atticus is beseeching the jurors to look upon the case with an unprejudiced eye, reminding all that everyone deserves justice, regardless of skin colour. His point, that ‘all men are created equal’, is also repeated, to emphasise that a jury, or indeed, anyone at all, should not judge based on race, but on the truth. Personally, I find Atticus’s speech extremely powerful in that it is deeply convincing. The manipulation and use of the words is also incredibly effective, causing the audience to feel exactly as intended and by the end of the speech, one could hardly doubt that Tom was truly innocent of the heinous crime of which he was accused.